Stream Erosion

Stream erosion is when water flowing through a channel has the ability to transport sediment to it from hill slopes and erode its banks and bed to produce sediment to transport. Sediment is the varied materials, organic and inorganic that can be carried away by water, wind or ice. The volume of flow normally depends on the amount of sediment being taken down stream. Eighty-five to ninety percent of the total sediment transported to sea has been due to rivers. Seven percent is transported by glaciers, whereas only one to two percent by groundwater and ocean waves, and less than one percent by both wind and volcanoes. River networks are multiple branching systems, beginning with tiny rivulets flowing downhill during rainstorms that join into rills and gullies and eventually into creeks and streams that continue to flow even when the rain has stopped.  These are fed by water that has soaked into the soil and that then slowly reemerges from stream banks to maintain the base flow of the stream. Rivers primarily create the most erosion . They acquire soil and weathered rock debris from hill slopes and valley walls, ranging in grain size from fine mud, sand, and gravel to huge boulders. Most erosion by rivers is accomplished during the brief intervals of high discharge and flooding. Rivers flow is not only faster but also deeper and wider, and it is also much muddier.  Due to the increase in turbulence in a deep fast flowing stream, the river can carry up to one hundred to one thousand, times as much water. That water carries up to one thousand times as much mud than at low flow; this means more sediment is being moved.

There are three major modes of sediment transport. The first mode is solution load; this is when dissolved material is carried by a river. This often happens in areas where the geology is limestone and is dissolved by slightly acidic water. Generally this is higher where much of the flow is derived from groundwater pathways, which allow water to stay in contact with rock for long periods. In the solution load, the sediment will not settle to the bottom of a waterway during a low or no flow period. These particles remain in permanent suspension as they are small enough to bounce off water and stay afloat.

The next mode of sediment transportation is suspended sediment/ suspended load. This is sediment that can be found in nearly any body of water, carried along by the water flow. There is an overlap between these two. Suspended sediment are any particles found in the water column, whether the water is flowing or not. The suspended load is the amount of sediment carried downstream within the water column by the water flow. Suspended loads require moving water, as the water flow creates small upward currents that keep the particles above the bed.  The size of particles that can be carried as suspended load is dependent on the flow rate. Larger particles are more likely to fall thought the upward currents to the bottom, unless the flow rate increases.

Bed load is the last mode of sediment transportation. Bed load is the portion of sediment transport that rolls, slides or bounces along the bottom of a waterway. “Bed load is transported in two ways, traction, which is a scooting and rolling of particles along the bed, and saltation, a bouncing like movement.” This sediment is not truly suspended, as it sustains intermittent contact with the streambed, and the movement is neither uniform nor continuous. Bed load occurs when the force of the water flow is strong enough to overcome the weight and cohesion of the sediment. While the particles are pushed along, they typically do not move as fast as the water around them, as the flow rate is not great enough to fully suspend them. Bed load transport can occur during low flows with smaller particles or at high flows resulting in larger particles. Around 5-20% of total sediment transport is a result of bed load. 

http://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooks/tpe_3e/fluvial_systems/geologic_work_of_streams.html

http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/eens1110/streams.htm

http://www.geologyclass.org/Stream%20Concepts.htm

Wetlands

What are wetlands? Wetlands defined “are lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal communities living in the soil and on its surface.” Wetlands can be found in all types of biomes, but vary due to regional and local differences in soils, vegetation, climate, human disturbance and other factors. Wetlands are one part of the foundation our nations water resources and are one of the most vital contributions to the health of waterways and communities that are downstream. Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including, during the growing season. There are both tidal wetlands and non-tidal wetlands. Tidal wetlands in the United States are found along the Atlantic, Pacific, Alaskan and Gulf coasts. They are close to where the sea water mixes with fresh water to form an environment of varying salinity. Many sallow coastal areas are vegetated mud flats or sand flats. This is a difficult environment for most plants to grow. However, some plants such as grass like plants have been able to successfully adapt to this environment. Non-tidal wetlands are most common in floodplains along rivers and streams. Inland wetlands include marshes and wet meadows dominated by herbaceous plants, swamps dominated by shrubs, and wooded swaps dominated by trees.

Why are wetlands so important? Wetlands are important for a multitude of reasons. One reason being is that they play a large role in our ecosystems. Wetlands can prevent flooding by holding/ absorbing water much like a sponge. By wetlands being able to do this is helps keep river levels normal and not only filter but also purify the surface water. Wetlands also release vegetative matter into rivers, which helps feed the organisms living in the water. Furthermore, wetlands help to counter balance the human effect on rivers by rejuvenating them and the surrounding ecosystems. Another reason why wetlands are important is that they provide significant economic, social and cultural benefits. They are important for primary products such as pastures, timber, fish and they support recreational and tourist activities. Wetlands support agricultural activities by providing a source of water for irrigation and livestock for domestic consumption. Recreational activities that inland wetlands are popular for are swimming, boating, fishing and camping to name a few. They also help reduce the impacts of storm damage, they maintain good water quality in rivers, recharge ground water, store carbon, help stabilize climatic conditions and control pests. Wetlands are also homes to many plants and animals, wetlands provide essential habitat for rare or important species.

What is the Ramsar Convention? “The Convention on Wetlands, called the Ramsar Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conversation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.” Ramsar is the oldest of the modern global intergovernmental agreements. The treaty was negotiated through the 1960s by the countries and non-governmental organizations concerned about the increasing loss of degradation of wetland habitat for migratory water birds. Their mission is the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. In 2015 a list came out of 37 designated wetlands of international importance in the United States.  One of the sites on the list is the Olentangy River Wetland Research Park located near Ohio State University. The Research Park is a large scale aquatic research facility.

http://www.ohwetlands.org/ramsar-wetlands-of-international-importance.html

https://rsis.ramsar.org/

http://www.wetlands.org/Whatarewetlands/tabid/202/Default.aspx

Urbanization

What is urbanization one might ask? Urbanization refers to the concentration of human populations into discrete areas, leading to transformation of land for residential, commercial; industrial and transportation purposes.  The word urbanization is becoming more like a word associated with a city. Urbanization is when populations of people grow; the population of a play may become too big and spill over from cities to nearby areas. “Urbanization in America saw the emergence of many new towns and cities which became even larger as more and more people, attracted by employment possibilities, begin living and working in towns and cities”

What are the factors of urbanization?  One factor of urbanization is population growth which contains three components natural growth of urban population, rural urban migration and the reclassification of areas that are considered rural. Natural increase provides a base for urban population growth rates and rural urban migration reclassification supplement this growth.  Another factor is poverty is another factor; in this case the needs of humanity are not being met.  Poverty is happening everywhere both in developed and developing countries. These individuals do not have the money to take care of their basic needs such as their physical self, their diet, housing, water and sanitation.

Why do we care? “Urbanization has the potential to usher in a new era of well-being, resources efficiency and economic growth.” We care because urban developments have increased dramatically in recent decades, and this increase is projected to continue. The United States developed land is projected to increase from 5.2% to 9.2% of the total land base within the next 25 years. On a national scale, urbanization affects relatively little land cover, but it has a significant ecological footprint. This means that even small amounts of urban development can have large effects on stream ecosystems. Another reason we care is because cities generate economic growth and cultural development and can offer many benefits to the citizens. Cities economic growth is rapidly higher than rural areas. Urban growth has the opportunity to connect more people to water and electricity, making the citizens healthier and therefore more productive. If urbanization is poorly managed will only add on to existing challenges, risks can include fast spreading diseases, gang violence and possible terrorism.

Where is urbanization happening in the world today?

More than one half of the world’s population lives in urban areas, and virtually all countries of the world are becoming increasingly urbanized. Urbanization is a global phenomenon that has nonetheless very different expressions across regions and development levels. This includes wealthier countries and those of Latin America and the Caribbean they have already a large proportion of their population residing in urban areas. Whereas countries such as, Africa and Asia are still mostly rural, they will urbanize faster than other regions over the coming decades. These trends are changing the landscape of human settlement, with significant implications for living conditions, the environment and development in different parts of the world. Daniel Rundue contributor to the Forbes article Urbanization Will Change the (Developing) World states that “96 percent of all urbanization by 2030 will occur in the developing world.”  With everyone looking to urbanize and move to the surrounding cities we need to consider a few things. The major issue rising concerns is do these areas have enough food, water and energy consumption to support the capacity or soon to be capacity of the cities.

http://www.american-historama.org/1881-1913-maturation-era/urbanization-in-america.htm

http://www.forbes.com/sites/danielrunde/2015/02/24/urbanization-development-opportunity/

http://www.unfpa.org/urbanization

embedded water

Embedded water is an essential part of our daily lives. Embedded water is in many things that one would not expect such as, burgers, clothing, wine, and hydropower just to name a few. According to National Geographic one pound of beef uses 1,799 gallons of water. To break that number down as to where the water is going 6.6 pounds of grain for feed including irrigation water, 36.2 pounds of roughage or grasses for feed, including irrigation water, and 18.6 gallons of additional water for consuming and processing. Embedded water is essentially water used to produce food and non-food products. About 65% of the water we consume is in our food. If our world continues the present level of consumption it is said to believe that two thirds of the global population will live in areas of water stress by 2025.  According to http://www.angelamorelli.com/water/ the average person eats 3,496 liters of water a day. The average domestic consumption consist of 137 liters a day, this is the water people use in their homes for  cleaning which equates to 5%, cooking and drinking stands at 10%, laundry 20%, flushing the toilet 30% and bathing 35%.   We consume both visible and invisible water, and the visible is just a small percentage of our overall consumption. Our invisible part of consumption is around 167 liters a day. The first invisible water aspect is used for the industrial production of things that we use every day and the second is associated with the food we consume. All of these together amounts to 3496 liters per day which means 92% of the water we use are invisible.

Embedded water is also known as virtual water. According to http://21stcenturychallenges.org/what-is-virtual-water/  embedded or virtual water is defined as “the total volume of water needed to produce and process a commodity or service.”  An important factor in virtual water is that of global trade. The global trade in goods has allowed for countries with limited access to water resources to rely on the water resources in other countries to meet the need of their citizens. With trade happening internationally, their water footprint follows them. The water footprint as said by http://www.gdrc.org/uem/footprints/water-footprint.html “is the volume of the water used.” This is important because as nations work toward securing food, water, energy and other essential inputs for peoples well-being, livelihoods  and the country’s economic  development, most countries rely on imports as well as exports of goods and services. A country may aim to be self-sufficient by relying primarily on goods that can be produced within its borders. Or a country may choose to reduce the burden on the natural resources within its borders by importing water intensive products. Virtual water helps us understand the dependencies our economies have on others resources.

There are many ways to save water, and many things that people can do to make changes. Every day people are wasting tons of water in all different settings. We can start asking for providers to give us information about the amount of water that is embedded in goods. If we made simple changes in our lives we could save a large amount of water each day. We must start thinking about how much we really rely on this finite and shared resource.

SOx & NOx

There are many sources of SOx that refers to all sulfur oxides, the two major being sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide. Sulfur dioxide also known as SO2 is a colorless gas with a strong, irritating odor and taste.   The major source of sulfur oxide emissions are dominated by stationary sources mostly by electric utility fuel combustion, industrial processes such as chemical preparation, refining, pulp making and solvent extraction, and also by industrial fuel combustion. SO2 is also used in the preservation and preparation of food, it prevents bacterial growth. The energy industry is responsible for 81% of SOx emissions. Some natural sources of SOx consist of volcanoes and hot springs. Man-made sources of SOx include gas processing, oil sands production, coal combustion, ore refining, chemical manufacturing and other fossil fuel processing and burning. Nitrogen oxide also known as NOx, consist of nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide and is formed when nitrogen combines with oxygen. NOx has no color, odor or taste and is nontoxic. NOx emissions are dominated by non-stationary transportation related sources. Nitrogen dioxide is a red/brown gas with a strong irritating odor; NO2 absorbs light and leads to the haze or smog seen over cities. Natural sources of NOx are a result of bacterial processes, biological growth and decay, lightning, and forest/ grassland fires. The primary source of man-made NOx is from burning fossil fuels.

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency also known as the EPA it is stated that the “current scientific evidence links short term exposures to SO2 ranging from 5 minutes to 24 hours, with an array of adverse respiratory effects including bronchoconstriction with increased asthma symptoms.” Being exposed to large quantities of SOx has its effects on at risk populations such as children because their lungs are still developing and they are more likely to have asthma, which can be caused by exposure to SO2. The elderly or older adults may be more affected by exposure to SO2, because they possibly may have pre-existing lung or cardiovascular disease. Another group that has a higher chance of being affected is active people, these are people of all ages who exercise or work outdoors who have higher exposure to SO2 than less active people.  Sulfur dioxide can irritate the skin, eyes, nose, throat and lungs. Higher concentrations of sulfur dioxide can cause inflammation and irritation of the respiratory system, specifically during physical activity. The EPA also states that for NOx, “Current scienti People who spend time on or near major roadways can experience short term NO2 exposures considerably higher than measured by the current network. NO2 exposure concentrations near roadways are of particular concern for some individuals, including people with asthma, asthmatic children, and the elderly. NOx reacts with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form small particles. These particles penetrate deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs and can cause or worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and can aggravate existing heart disease, leading to increased hospital admissions and premature death.

fic evidence links short-term NO2 exposures, ranging from 30 minutes to 24 hours, with adverse respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma.”

A relationship between lichen presence specifically between, Physcia Millegrana and Candelaira Colcolor and, Sulphur Dioxide SO2 and Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 levels. Areas with high sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide had low to non-existent levels of lichen present, and areas with low levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide had high levels of lichen present.  SO2 and NO2 are good indicators of airborne pollution; we can assume that areas with a high lichen presence have better air quality than those with a low lichen presence.

http://dwb.unl.edu/teacher/nsf/c09/c09links/www.casahome.org/sulphur.htm

http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/health.html

http://www.paperenvironment.org/soxnox.html